Chapter 17: Soul, Motown, and Stax
Soul music emerged in the late 1950s and early 1960s as a distinct genre rooted in African American cultural and musical traditions. Many of soul’s foundational elements came directly from the Black church. Gospel music contributed not only its call-and-response structure, but also its vocal techniques—including melisma (singing multiple notes on a single syllable), bent pitches, and blue notes. The gospel model of a lead vocalist supported by a backing chorus carried over into soul’s use of background singers and vocal arrangements. Thematically, gospel’s messages of perseverance, uplift, and hope remained central, even as lyrics shifted from spiritual salvation to romantic love, personal struggle, and political affirmation.
By the early 1960s, a more polished, pop-influenced version of rhythm and blues began to emerge in a subgenre known as sweet soul. This style was characterized by moderate tempos, smooth, melismatic vocal lines, and rich background harmonies rooted in the doo-wop tradition. Many sweet soul songs were ballads, designed to showcase emotional vulnerability and romantic longing. These ballads typically employed a triplet feel—a rhythmic pattern in which each beat is divided into three equal parts—creating a lilting, swaying groove that intensified the expressive quality of the vocals and gave the music a flowing, almost rocking-chair-like motion.
Unlike the rawer, more sparsely arranged textures of early R&B, sweet soul productions often featured lush orchestrations with string sections, vibraphone, and Latin-inflected rhythms in the drum parts, giving the genre a warm, sophisticated, and highly marketable sound. This crossover appeal was intentional, aiming to reach both Black and white audiences by blending gospel with pop accessibility.
One of the most iconic early examples of this crossover success was Ben E. King’s Stand by Me (1961), which merged gospel-inflected lead vocals with pop structure and orchestration. King had initially performed with the Drifters before embarking on a solo career, working closely with producer-songwriters Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller. These collaborators were pivotal in shaping the sound of sweet soul through meticulous studio craftsmanship that balanced emotional depth with commercial appeal.
Sam Cooke
Often hailed as the "King of Soul," Sam Cooke (1931–1964) was a pivotal figure in shaping modern soul music. Born in Clarksdale, Mississippi, and raised in Chicago, Cooke was the son of a Baptist minister and began his singing career in the church. He joined the Highway QCs as a teenager and rose to prominence as the lead vocalist for the influential gospel group The Soul Stirrers in 1950. With them, he recorded powerful spirituals such as “Be With Me Jesus” and “Nearer to Thee,” earning wide acclaim within the gospel community.
Cooke made a controversial leap to secular music in 1957. Cooke initially released his early pop singles under the pseudonym “Dale Cook” to avoid alienating his religious fan base. This transition was seen by many in the gospel music community as a betrayal of spiritual values, and an embrace of worldliness. Yet Cooke’s decision also reflected a broader desire among Black artists to assert control over their careers and reach wider audiences. His debut hit, “You Send Me,” quickly revealed his crossover potential, blending gospel-inflected melisma, smooth pop delivery, and rhythm and blues phrasing. Over the next eight years, he released 29 Top 40 hits, including “Chain Gang,” “Cupid,” “Twistin’ the Night Away,” and “Bring It On Home to Me.” His work consistently balanced the emotional depth of gospel with the accessibility of pop, laying the foundation for what would become known as sweet soul.
Beyond his artistic achievements, Cooke was a savvy entrepreneur. In 1958, he founded Kags Music Publishing to retain ownership of his songwriting. The following year, he launched SAR Records—short for “Sam, Alex, and Roy,” named after himself, his manager Roy Crain, and his business partner J.W. Alexander. SAR was one of the first Black-owned record labels in the United States and represented a bold move toward economic independence and artistic control at a time when the music industry was dominated by white executives who routinely underpaid or exploited Black artists.
Through SAR, Cooke nurtured a new generation of talent, including gospel-turned-soul performers such as Bobby Womack (with The Valentinos), Johnnie Taylor, Billy Preston, and The Soul Stirrers—Cooke’s former gospel group. He used the label to give these artists creative freedom, fairer contracts, and professional development. Though SAR was short-lived—folding after Cooke’s death in 1964—it laid the groundwork for later Black-owned labels like Motown and exemplified his belief that Black musicians should control not just the performance but the production and distribution of their work.
Cooke's most enduring and politically resonant work came in 1964 with the release of “A Change Is Gonna Come.” The song was inspired by personal experiences with racial discrimination, especially an incident in which he was denied a room at a whites-only motel in Louisiana. Set in 3/4 time, the song’s triple meter—along with 6/8 time—was common in this style of soul music, lending a flowing, waltz-like feel that emphasized its gospel roots. Its ability to communicate a sorrowful yet triumphant tone with a gospel-infused vocal delivery, combined with lush orchestration, captured both the pain and hope of the Civil Rights Movement. Over time, the song became an anthem for social change and was later preserved by the Library of Congress, having been deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant."
Tragically, Sam Cooke’s life was cut short on December 11, 1964, when he was fatally shot by the manager of the Hacienda Motel in Los Angeles. The official account stated that Cooke, allegedly searching for a woman who had accompanied him to the motel, became agitated and forced his way into the manager’s office, prompting her to shoot him in self-defense. However, many aspects of the case—including inconsistencies in witness testimonies and the speed of the police investigation—have led to ongoing speculation and controversy. Cooke’s sudden and violent death shocked the music world and left unanswered questions that still linger today.
Despite his premature death at age 33, Cooke’s impact on American music and culture remains lasting and influential. As both an artist and a businessman, he bridged the sacred traditions of gospel and the secular sounds of rhythm and blues and pop, helping to define soul music as a genre rooted in emotional depth, spiritual intensity, and social relevance. He opened doors for future Black artists by establishing creative and financial control over his work, setting a precedent for artist independence. Most importantly, Cooke gave voice to the hopes and struggles of a generation. With songs like “A Change Is Gonna Come,” he articulated a vision of justice, dignity, and resilience that resonated with the Civil Rights Movement and continues to inspire listeners around the world.