Chapter 7: Swing and Big Bands
Edward Kennedy “Duke” Ellington (1899–1974) is widely regarded as one of the most influential composers in the history of jazz. More than just a bandleader or pianist, Ellington was a musical architect whose career redefined the possibilities of jazz orchestration and composition. While many contemporaries focused on arranging popular tunes for dance audiences, Ellington distinguished himself by writing original music that showcased the individual talents of his musicians and explored the full tonal palette of the jazz orchestra.
Ellington arrived in New York City in the early 1920s and, from 1923 to 1927, led his ensemble, the Washingtonians, at the Hollywood Club on Broadway and 39th Street. In 1927, his group—now expanded to a 14-member orchestra—was hired as the house band at the Cotton Club, an upscale Harlem nightclub catering to whites-only patrons. Though the racial dynamics of the venue were troubling, the engagement gave Ellington a national platform and led to regular radio broadcasts that brought his music to homes across America.
At the Cotton Club, Ellington was expected to compose a steady stream of new material, including dance numbers, theatrical interludes, and blues-inspired mood pieces. His orchestra featured an all-star lineup, including Cootie Williams and Bubber Miley on trumpet, Johnny Hodges on alto saxophone, Harry Carney on baritone saxophone, Barney Bigard on clarinet, and Joe “Tricky Sam” Nanton on trombone. This stable core of musicians allowed Ellington to write parts tailored to their specific strengths.
One of Ellington’s greatest innovations was his focus on tone color and timbre. He encouraged his musicians to use a variety of mutes, particularly the plunger mute, which created the vocal-like "wah-wah" effect. This sonic experimentation gave his music a textural richness that stood apart from the more formulaic dance bands of the era.
The press often described Ellington’s sound as “jungle music”—a label promoted in Cotton Club advertisements. While the term played into racist stereotypes and exoticized the music for white audiences, Ellington himself embraced the idea of exploring new sonic terrain, without accepting the dehumanizing connotations. He saw sound as storytelling, and he was constantly in search of new combinations of instruments and voices to tell those stories.
Ellington’s pieces frequently featured extended solo passages—sometimes written with specific players in mind. Works like "Concerto for Cootie" and "Jeep’s Blues" were composed to spotlight the unique artistry of Cootie Williams and Johnny Hodges, respectively. These long-form solos gave individual musicians the space to develop their ideas, while also reinforcing the collaborative identity of the ensemble.
One of Ellington’s most iconic pieces from the Cotton Club era is “Old Man Blues”, which was prominently featured in the 1930 film Check and Double Check. Despite the title, the piece does not follow the 12-bar blues structure. Instead, it is an example of Ellington’s freely composed forms, where short solos are layered with instrumental riffs and shifting tone colors. The arrangement uses plunger mutes, growling brass, and contrasting textures to keep the listener’s ear engaged from start to finish. In contrast to other Ellington pieces that might feature a single soloist for an extended stretch, “Old Man Blues” relies on a series of brief, dynamic solos punctuated by ensemble interjections, showcasing Ellington’s mastery of pacing and orchestration.
Throughout his career, Ellington challenged the boundaries between jazz and classical music, between entertainment and art. His innovations in composition, orchestration, and bandleading not only defined the Swing Era but also elevated jazz as a respected art form. He composed over 1,000 works, ranging from short songs to extended suites and sacred music. Even after his time at the Cotton Club ended, Duke Ellington remained a towering figure in American music until his death in 1974, leaving a legacy that continues to influence composers and performers around the world.